MOUSE OR RAT - FRIEND OR FOE TO HUMANS

Subash L

    INTRODUCTION 

    Rodents are renowned to be reservoir hosts for a minimum of sixty zoonotic diseases and are known to play a vital role in their transmission and unfold in several ways in which. 

    For many individuals, exposure to rodents consists of seeing them used as food for snakes or birds of prey at the zoo, or having to influence unwanted rodents invasive their dwellings.

    Advances in biological science have considerably enlarged the understanding of the biology of various diseases. 

    They are well custom-made to a good vary of habitats and doubtless represent the mammals that have most frequently accompanied  humans in their international spreading. 


    As such, they need had the chance to settle wherever they were introduced so become invasive with many effects on variety and profound impacts on human activities

    Transgenic mouse models in toxicology have primarily been wont to screen medicine for carcinogenicity and to know the mechanisms of toxicity. 

    Mice are the popular model species for medical specialty analysis. 



    MOUSE AS FRIEND TO HUMANS

    HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM IN MICE WITH HUMAN PATHOGENS

    Mice with human immune system elements provide the chance to research infections with pathogens displaying restricted response for the human hematopoietic lineages, and also the adaptational immune responses they evoke. what is more, the introduction of HLA transgenes into the several inclined mouse strains may even enable characterizing human immune responses to pathogens with response for mouse somatic tissues.

    One of the foremost extensively studied cell population of the human innate system in mice with reconstituted human immune system elements is that the NK cell lineage.

    The high reconstitution potency in HPC injected NOD-scid γc-/- mice and blt mice, compared to alternative mouse models, and also the presence in that of a functionally competent, however resting NK cell compartment, suggests the discriminatory use of those models within the analysis of the role for human NK cells in innate immune responses to infection and cancer.

    EPSTEIN BARR VIRUS

    mice reconstituted with human immune system elements model several aspects of Epstein-Barr virus infection and immune management which will even be found in humans.

    Mice with human system elements will facilitate to check safety and effectualness of those and alternative new medicine before they enter tests in primates or perhaps humans.

    DENGUE 

    The four serotypes of dengue fever virus (DENV) belong to the family of arborvirus, that are tiny enveloped ribonucleic acid viruses.  
    Reconstituted mice appear to emerge as a decent model to check the pathologic process of DENV and may facilitate discover therapeutic similarly as preventive ways.

     HIV

    human immunodeficiency  virus (HIV) and also the ensuing immunological disorder are still a significant threat to world health.

    Antiretroviral medical care delays illness progression, however there's no cure or vaccinum accessible up to now.

    Viral infection with viraemia within the plasma, show dissemination of the virus to varied organs and exhibit CD4+ lymph cell depletion. 

     lymph cell compartment and cellular immune responses to HIV in reconstituted mice, the characteristic feature all told reported studies is that the loss of CD4+ T cells. 

    Mice with human immune system elements are helpful tools to check antiretroviral medical specialty and probably vaccines 

    Photo credit: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165247814001047

    XENOGRAFT

    Xenografts (xenos-from the Greek which means “foreign”), could be a graft obtained from a member of 1 species and transplanted to a member of another species, genus, or family.

    Human xenografts growing in immunodeficient mice are a well-established and helpful model for finding out human neoplasm biology in an exceedingly system that higher mimics the first tumor as compared to cells grownup in vitro.

    Recent innovations in cell labeling techniques and small-animal imaging have enabled investigators to watch the metastatic process and quantitate the expansion and unfold of orthotopically planted tumors.

    Numerous neoplasm-specific patient derived tumor xenografts (PDTX) models are established and significantly, they're biologically stable once passaged in mice in terms of world gene-expression patterns, mutational standing, metastatic potential, drug responsiveness and neoplasm design. 

    Patient-Derived Tumor Xenograft (PDTX) Mouse Models

    Photo credit: https://www.creative-biolabs.com


    RESEARCH OF MICE IN HUMAN DEAFNESS

    The identification of genes answerable for hereditary hearing impairment provides a superb example of the utility of mice for finding out human disorders.

    The mouse has been instrumental in distinguishing and characterizing an oversized variety of those genes.

    Genetically identical inbred strains of mice carrying one mutated sequence are notably valuable in distinguishing gene function.

    It has been troublesome to check the genetic science of deafness and deafness in humans due partially to the shortage of huge families or large numbers of affected people for studies, the difficulty of genetic heterogeneity, and therefore the general inability to perform elaborated anatomical analysis on human ears, notably inner ears. 

    Especially problematic is that the difficulty in ascertaining what injury is thanks to heritable factors versus environmental factors corresponding to exposure to loud noise or infections
    To date, over fifty five non-syndromic human hearing impairment genes are known and in each case, a corresponding mouse mutant is a model for that individual sort of hearing impairment. 


    VACCINATION 

    Mice with reconstituted human immune elements will function diagnosis surrogate models to analyze the pathologic process of infectious agent infections and alternative human diseases. 

    These models are new tools within the development of effective and reasonable vaccines and therapeutics.

    Mice with human system elements were wont to check vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) associated corona virus.

    vaccine development that aims to primarily judge matter and adjuvant candidates for improved lymphocyte immunity may well be advanced in these mice. 

    As infectious agent associated molecular pattern recognition differs between mouse and man and powerfully affects adjuvant recognition throughout vaccination, vaccination studies may particularly like these new models. 

    Mouse in production of vaccine

    Photo credit: https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/658005v2.full


    ADVANTAGES OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED MICE IN RESEARCH

    Genetically modified animals are organisms during which specific genes are altered (added or ablated) to form models for human and animal diseases. 

    Genetically changed mice for carcinogenicity analysis began quite twenty years agone 

    European Commission consider that mice seem to be the foremost common genetically built animal models to review new drug compounds for various diseases for the subsequent reasons.

    The mouse is that the commonest model organism for diagnosis studies even though it's not verified significantly reliable at predicting the result of studies in humans.

    Mice have several advantages over alternative model organisms: Their order is analogous to the human genome (99%), an honest genetic/molecular tool chest is out there and also the animal's tiny size facilitates giant scale/high output studies creating it a efficient model. Therefore, it's potential for creating medical analysis and especially drug development additional economical can be redoubled by resolution a spread of known bottlenecks.

    Mouse models are with success accustomed validate drug targets and to work out efficacious and safe dose schemes for combination treatments in humans. These cases have one consider common: they are doing not aim to totally model a disease or disease mechanisms, however rather come into being to get specific practical data.

    Genetically changed mice got to be valid, duplicable, strong and efficient to be thought-about best by the pharmaceutical trade.

    Transgenic humanized mice may offer sensible diagnosis screening and safety testing models to be used in lead identification and improvement.

    The large-scale phenotyping of cistrontically built mice will offer valuable data on gene operate that has relevancy for human health and disease.

    The use of mice in clinical studies has verified effective during a variety of cases. dose regimes of recent treatments or treatment combinations will speedily be optimized by co-clinical trials with mice, permitting quick application in humans with bigger patient safety. This provides increasing opportunities especially for the speedy development of treatments for terribly rare diseases wherever low patient numbers otherwise hamper the creation of clinical trials.

    Genetically modified mouse


    MOUSE AS FOE TO HUMANS

    RESERVOIR OF HUMAN PATHOGENS

    Rats or mice or mouse play a serious role in their transmission and unfold in numerous ways that. 

    Among the foremost necessary diseases in terms of public health are 
    • Salmonellosis
    • Plague
    • Leptospirosis
    • Leishmaniasis
    • Toxoplasmosis
    • Rat-bit fever
    • Taeniasis-like Capillaria hepatica
    • Zoonotic babesiosis
    • Lassa fever
    • Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS)
    • Hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS), each caused by Hantavirus. 
    • Arenaviruses are answerable for South american hemorrhagic Fevers (SAHF) 
    Rodents could harbor completely different advanced microorganism, similar to
    • mycobacterium tuberculosis 
    • Mycobacterium microti
    • Escherichia coli
    • agents of tularaemia
    • tick-borne infectious disease
    • bartonellosis 
    • listeriosis
    • Lyme disease
    • Q fever
    • ehrlichiosis et al.. 

    ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANT STRAIN IN MOUSE

    Researchers was conducted by lipkin and conclude by saying “These antibiotic resistance genes are out there in the environment and mice are carrying them everywhere,” and additionally lipkin says, “My concern is that they are a reservoir of antibiotic resistance.” As such, if humans were infected by a microorganism strain carried by these mice, then the infection might be resistant to treatment.

    SOME OF THE DISEASES TRANSMITTED BY RODENTS

    SALMONELLOSIS

    Salmonella may be a group of microorganism which will board the enteral tract of the many completely different animals. salmonellosis may be a microorganism sickness caused by enterobacteria.

    Although enterobacteria is most frequently unfold once someone eats contaminated food, the microorganism can also be passed between individuals and animals.

    People infected with salmonella might have
    • Diarrhea
    • Vomiting
    • Fever
    • Abdominal cramps. 
    Infants, the elderly, and people with weak immune systems are additional seemingly than others to develop severe unwellness. 

    Photo credit: www.wikipedia.com 

    PLAGUE

    Plague may be a unwellness that affects humans and alternative mammals. 

    It is caused by the microorganism, Yersinia pestis. 

    Humans sometimes get plague once being bitten by a rodent flea that's carrying the plague microorganism or by handling an animal infected with plague. 

    Plague is disreputable for killing millions of people in Europe throughout the center Ages. Today, trendy antibiotics are effective in treating plague. while not prompt treatment, the unwellness will cause serious illness or death.

    Plague symptoms depend on however the patient was exposed to the plague microorganism. Plague will take completely different clinical forms, however the foremost common are bubonic, pneumonic, and septicemic.

    Plague may be a terribly serious unhealthiness, however is treatable with normally accessible antibiotics.

    Photo credit: https://slideplayer.com/slide/4438854/


    LEPTOSPIROSIS

    Leptospirosis may be a microorganism unwellness that affects humans and animals. it's caused by microorganism of the genus Leptospira. In humans, it will cause a good vary of symptoms, a number of which can be mistaken for different diseases.

    Without treatment, zoonotic disease will cause kidney damage, meningitis (inflammation of the membrane around the brain and spinal cord), liver failure, respiratory distress, and even death.

    Leptospirosis is treated with antibiotics, like doxycycline or penicillin, that ought to incline early within the course of the unwellness. 

    Photo credit:https://www.cdc.gov/


    RAT BITE FEVER

    Rat-bite fever (RBF) is an communicable disease caused by 2 completely different bacteria:

    Streptobacillus moniliformis, the sole reported  bacterium that causes RBF in North America 

    Spirillum minus, common in Asia

    People generally become infected with these bacterium once contact with rodents carrying the bacteria. 

    A person can even get infected through consumption of food or water contaminated with the urine and stool of rodents carrying the bacterium. this can be referred to as Haverhill fever.

    If not treated, RBF are often a significant or maybe fatal unwellness.

    Through bites or scratches from rodents carrying the bacterium. The bacterium will enter the body directly through a bite wound, open skin, or mucous membranes reminiscent of within the eyes, nose, or mouth

    When handling rodents carrying the bacterium or through contact with their secretion, urine, or stool
    Through contact with surfaces that are contaminated with the bacterium. 

    The bacterium will enter the body through open skin, reminiscent of cuts or scrapes, or secretion membranes reminiscent of within the eyes, nose, or mouth. 

    Consuming food or drinks that are contaminated with stool or excretory product from a rodent carrying the bacterium

    Rat bite fever bacteria 

    Photo credit: www.sciencephoto.com


    TULAREMIA 

    Tularemia could be a unwellness that may infect animals and other people.
     
    Rabbits, hares, and rodents are particularly inclined and sometimes die in large numbers throughout outbreaks. individuals will become infected in many ways that, including:
    • Tick and ruminant fly bites
    • Skin contact with infected animals
    • Drinking contaminated water
    • Inhaling contaminated aerosols or agricultural and landscaping dirt
    • Laboratory exposure.
    Tularemia will be troublesome to diagnose. it's a rare unwellness, and also the symptoms will be mistaken for different, additional common, illnesses. 

    Tularemia transmission to human


    HANTA VIRUS

    Hantavirus pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) could be a severe, generally fatal, disease in humans caused by infection with hantaviruses.

    Anyone who comes into contact with rodents that carry hantaviruses is in danger of HPS.

    Rodent infestation in and round the home remains the first risk for hantavirus exposure. Even healthy people are in danger for HPS infection if exposed to the virus.

    Mortality rate is regarding 38%


    ARENAVIRUSES 

    The arenaviridae are a family of viruses whose members are typically related to rodent-transmitted diseases in humans. every virus typically is related to a selected rodent host species within which it's maintained. animal virus infections are comparatively common in humans in some areas of the globe and might cause severe diseases.

    Viral haemorrhagic fevers caused by Arenaviruses
    • Argentine viral hemorrhagic fever
    • Bolivian viral hemorrhagic fever
    • Chapare viral hemorrhagic fever
    • Sabia-associated viral hemorrhagic fever
    • Venezuelan viral hemorrhagic fever
    • Lassa fever
    • Lujo viral hemorrhagic fever
    • Lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM) 

    Photo credit: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/old-world-arenavirus


    CONCLUSION 

    As infectious agent associated molecular pattern recognition differs between mouse and man and powerfully affects adjuvant recognition throughout vaccination, vaccination studies may particularly have the benefit of these new models.

    Xenograft mouse models, are highlighted as a key obstacle within the translation of the most important advances in basic therapeutic analysis into important clinical edges. 

    At last use of mice and rats can still offer a strong tool for advancing the understanding of each traditional and illness processes across species and facilitate the transition of analysis from “bench to bedside” to improve human health. 

    In the other hand rodents are the reservoir of the most of the human pathogens 
    Conclude by saying for each positive there's also an negative.

    REFERENCE 


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